LANGUAGE AND TERMINOLOGICAL SOURCES OF SUFISM

Sufism has developed distinctive language instruments, a diverse and extremely multilayered terminological system abounding in metaphors and symbols. Almost without exception, this language has been accepted by Sufi authorities and followers in Muslim communities and today it is an unavoidable body of intellectual and spiritual tradition of Islam.

The fundamental feature of Sufi language are its many semantic layers, sometimes deriving different messages and meanings from a single term by different authors, though preserving, in the term, many semantic layers which emerged during its historical development. It is for this reason that extensive literature of commentating character has been written, and commentaries and dictionaries strove to provide explanation and meaning of the use of Sufi terms, particularly for beginners on the Sufi road or those who are uninformed on secrets of mystic teaching.

Like Sufi doctrines, distinctive terminological instruments emerged and developed gradually, underwent certain stages until its final establishment and assuming terminological stability and accuracy. “Due to repetition and widespread use, some words which Sufis used to express their states gradually assumed the form of terms. At times, Sufi poets used metaphor, metonymy, figurative language to develop terminology which assumed a secretive, coded form, which in turn became established terms. One cannot accurately say when and where these terms began to be used and established, though it is clear and obvious that some of the terms which are found in works and speech of Sufis are from the Qur'an or were taken from the language of the greats of religion and legends ˮ (Sağğādī, Farhang, 7-8). Fazlur Rahman also believes that part of Sufi terminology was borrowed from the Qur'an (Rahman, Duh islama, 194). Use of some terms, although they do not pertain to the Qur'an, resulted from what theologians and commentators of the Qur'an of earlier generation understood or derived from the text and messages of the Qur'an. In this way, and perhaps it was the intention and reason for using these terms, Sufi connected their beliefs and teaching with the Qur'an more strongly and more directly. Some terms are taken from hadith. Besides, for needs of their conceptual register they borrowed or took already established terms and phrases from theology, linguistics, grammar and philosophy, and terms widespread in peripatetic philosophy and philosophy of illumination (Zarrīnkūb, Arzeš, 149-150).

Without any doubt, Sufism has established its own glossary, i.e. technical language taken from different sources, though always tinged with a distinctive color of Sufi teaching. However, due to the fact that such a language has a task to describe personal spiritual experiences, the world of suprasensory and metaphysical, it permanently has difficulties in transferring the spiritual world to the material, sensory world, the more so since language and speech themselves are limited by human knowledge and his overall possibilities. On the other hand, the personal spiritual experience of any man is still only his; in other words, it does not necessarily mean that someone else will experience or feel mystic experiences at the same level of spiritual exaltation. It seems to be an unsurmountable obstacle and unsolvable linguistic and interpretative problem.

Prominent Sufi greats were aware of language barriers and limitations. Therefore, a motto was launched that Sufi experiences and spiritual ecstasies are not only impossible to be expressed by language but that they are not for average people at all, only for those who strive toward above-average and higher. However, it also carries a risk of absolutizing a subjective experience or the vision of truth and holding monopoly over it, by denying and avoiding to recognize the credibility of spiritual experience to others. In this context, the question was raised as to who would ensure and maintain credibility of Sufi experience, protect Sufi truths from anarchy and chaos which could result from recognition of everybody's subjective expression as valid. Without existence of criteria and protection mechanisms, anybody could aspire to the validity of his experience and language he expresses it in and request legitimacy.

From the very beginning, understanding Sufi terminology has been a permanent difficulty, it has required a certain intellectual effort, acquisition of some knowledge, skills and spiritual experience. Moreover, Sufi literature points out that this distinctive terminology had a double function: concealing and revealing. Technical terms concealed mystic knowledge from those who did not have intellectual and spiritual capacity to understand cryptic meanings and spiritual experiences. At the same time, those who embark on the spiritual road and accept teacher's instructions, at every level they have passed acquire appropriate meanings and the intention and content of Sufi terminology. It was the way to establish a sort of protection frame from subjectivization of Sufi truths and anarchy, which partly solved the issue of criteria and credibility. Thus, guidance and instructions of shaykh and spiritual journey allow a Sufi to reveal spiritual secrets and knowledge which can be cloaked in certain language forms, and these forms cannot be revealed to people who do not have talent for and knowledge of Sufi principles.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that use of distinctive Sufi language is not a matter of whim and arrogance, nor is it deprived of functionality and reasonable inner purpose. The objective researcher will very easily reach the conclusion that use is part of intention, a conscious plan of Sufi authorities. They point it out very clearly. Who wants to understand the purpose and accumulated meanings in Sufi technical register should embark on a spiritual part of rises and falls, challenges and difficulties, where these meanings will be revealed to him, and where he will learn the needed and necessary codes. Those who are not ready for this physical and spiritual effort do not dserve to understand Sufi secrets expressed in a language of symbols, metaphors, allegories and parables. At the same time the terminology has a defensive function, the role of protection from contempt and lynch of the uninformed world. Indeed, the language keeps truths of Sufism and Sufi followers and it reflects its multifaceted role, same as Sufi doctrines and practice themselves are multifaceted. “Sufis use technical terms intended for revealing or concealing meaning: in this way they can facilitate understanding of some difficult points by novices, and at the same time conceal secrets of their teaching from those who are uninformed ˮ (Meyerovitch, Antologija, 124). In the 14h century, Sufi authority Lāhīğī points out the following in treatises about the language of Sufism: “Mystics intentionally use metaphors to express their discoveries and their spiritual states: although these images are sometimes wondrous, it does not diminish this intention. Mystics have set up a speech which cannot be understood by those who do not have their spiritual experience and thus, when they express their states or stations the meaning of their expressions is understood by those who are in the same state, while the meaning is forbidden to those who do not participate in it... Some mystics have expressed different degrees of mystic maturing through symbols of clothes, curls of hair, cheeks, birthmarks, wine, flames etc., which are merely a glittering semblance for the uninformed ˮ (Meyerovitch, Antologija, 131).

In search for answers about the nature of Sufi language, it may be very helpful to make an effort to understand some of the key doctrinary principles of Sufism. For example, in line with Sufi view, there is only one unlimited and inexhaustible Reality, which is manifested everywhere; however, the level and intensity of its manifestation differ. Based on this assumption, searcher who searches for this Reality understands the Divine reality based on his spiritual potentials and capacities, purification of the heart and willingness to get immersed into this endless ocean as deep as possible. Accordingly, every spiritual traveler and scholar speaks about the part of Reality which he has seen and understood. Those who are immersed deeper speak about these levels of Divine reality, though none of them provides the exhaustive and ultimate knowledge, since Divine reality is inexhaustible. That is why we find different interpretations and understandings of people who have set sail on this ocean, since each of them speak about the same Reality though from different levels of personal experience and capacity. Starting from this viewpoint, Sufi point out: although Divine reality is the only one and all-encompassing, different scholars have interpreted it in different ways, based on their respective experience, their own spiritual potential, and different grasp of this Infinity.

Discussing Prophet's speech, Ibn Arebi provides another perspective to understanding this speech. God's prophets, as Ibn Arebi points out, “use specific speech since they address crowd and since they rely on understanding the wise one who would hear them. Even if they speak graphically, it is because the ordinary man and because they are familiar with the degree of insight of those who truly understand” (Meyerovitch, Antologija, 131-132). Thus, the ordinary man will understand one level of speech, while the enlightened and observant will go further and find another level of knowledge in the same speech. It is on these premises that polysemy and polyvalency of almost every Sufi speech and text is based and explained. In the same vein, existence of different levels of understanding, which are resolutely reported by Sufi authorities, necessarily implies that the same text or the same term releases different meanings at different spiritual levels and abilities of the recipient. Obviously, for Sufis language is an important code for discovering and knowing Divine Reality.

Underscoring many semantic layers of speech and message which are transmitted to people by God's prophets, Ibn Arebi also explains that this language, although cloaked in different semantic levels, is purposeful and useful at each of these levels, and that it offers a usable meaning for recipients of the messages. Moreover, he claims that these semantic levels are not closed; on the contrary, they allow passability and supplementation to the informed. The knowledge which is acquired at one level is useful for the holder of this level; however, it is not limiting but rather initiating, modeling, transforming. Indeed, it can be deepened or assume an entirely different form at a higher level, although the content of the speech or the textual message remains the same. Thus, for the Sufi, cognition which comes through language, knowledge and meaning laid in language is very dynamic, progressive, pulsating and encouraging. It produces excitement, elations, emotional responses, sometimes very tumultuous. It seems to be a chain process where one state releases energy required for reaching another state, whereby new images, new forms, new meanings and outlines of previously unimagined reality are accumulated and accepted. It is in this fact that the power and wealth of Sufi language and worldview are reflected.

In the opinion of many Sufi authorities, the meanings which are condensed in Sufi language and terminology are a reflection of God's Reality, His attributes and names in many forms and intensities. Therefore, we find certain terms which are actually symbols of given dimensions of Reality and the world of the beyond. Consequently, it is not the Sufi who gives meaning to a term, or one who “fills” a given language sign with meaning; rather, he recognizes it as such, the language sign manifests it to him as such and he further transfers it to the text.

References:

• Meyerovitch, Eva de Vitray (1988), Antologija sufijskih tekstova, Naprijed, Zagreb.

• Rahman, Fazlur (1983), Duh islama, Jugoslavija/Prosveta, Beograd.

• Sağğādī, Seyyed Ğa‘far, Farhang-e ’estelāhāt wa ta‘bīrāt-e ‘erfānī, Entešārāt-e Tahūrī, Tehrān, 1996 (1375).

• Sharif, M. M. (1988), Historija islamske filozofije, I, II, August Cesarec, Zagreb.

• Zarrīnkūb, ‘Abdolhosein, Arzeš-e mīrās-e sūfiye, Amīr Kabīr, Tehrān, 1377 (1998).