CONCEPTUAL SOURCES OF SUFISM

Many works have been written and many discussions led on establishing and clarifying conceptual inspirations and sources of Sufism. Some even attempted to prove that ideological background on which Sufism emerged and developed is, essentially, non-Islamic. Some researchers claimed that it was old Iranian ideas that inspired the emergence of Sufism; one can also find views according to which it was Indian mental heritage that directed theoretical dimensions of Sufi teaching, or that it was Greek philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism. Some Orientalists attempted to prove that Sufism was influences by Christian ascetism, particularly by its ascetic segment and withdrawal from the world.

Theoreticians of Sufism who searched for its source beyond the Islamic circle strove to find support for their views in the similarity between individual segments of Sufi teaching and practice on the one hand, and ideas beyond Islamic mental heritage. In this context, they attempted to relate biographies, teaching and practices of prominent Sufi greats, e.g. the ascetic life of Ibrahim ibn Adham, developing the idea of love by Rabia al-Adawiyya, teaching of Juneid, Zunun al-Misri, terminology of Bayazid Bistami and Hallaj, or the idea of perfect man by Ibn Arabi etc., to the philosophical heritage beyond the Muslim social circle or contemplative body of the time.

Moreover, some authors saw social causes in the emergence of Sufism, claiming that the emergence of Tasawwuf in the early 2nd century of Hijra (9th century CE) was actually a protest, opposition and struggle against ruling social deviations of the time, establishing inheriting regimes, spreading of social injustice and an increasing gap between social classes in the Muslim society and state of the time (Bayat, Mabānī-ye, 11-49).

On the other hand, if one reads works and literature of Sufi provenance, whose authors were well-known Sufi authorities and chroniclers of Sufism, one can conclude with certainty that they refused a possibility to relate their worldview to any idea or influence beyond the source of Islam. This kind of literature assures us that the root and origin of Tasawwuf is not in non-Islamic sources and that „its foundation and root should be sought in the divine Book of Muslims and Sunnah of noble Prophet, ascetism, refraining and integrity particularly of the first as-sahabas and the system of their thinking. However, other influences and what can be observed in works of Sufis, which are attributed to views and opinion of philosophers and scholars of different religious systems of earlier periods pertain to a later period rather than to the root, foundation and basis of Tasawwuf” (Gouharīn, Šarh, I, 17).

Sufi authorities refer to many Qur'anic ayats which were the basis of the development and direction of Sufi worldview (Qur’an, 49:13, 14:1, 7:205), and claims about Islamic inspiration for Sufism are also supported by spiritual experiences of God's messenger Muhammed, a.s., which are described in the Revelation. “Muhammed's prophetic mind, which found expression in his mission, was based on a very definite, living and powerful mystic experience, which was briefly described or indicated in the Qur'an ˮ (Rahman, Duh islama, 185). It refers to ayats (Qur’an, 7:1; 53:1-12 i 13-18; 81:19-25) which describe the ascension of Muhammed, a.s., into heaven (miraj). Sufis consider the Qur'anic narration about the contract (mīsāq, Qur’an, 57:9) as a contract of love between the man and God. Besides, Sufi authors also see the conceptual background for the emergence and development of Sufism and its ideas in the Qur'anic narration about emanet (Qur’an, 33:72), the burden of which could not be carried by heaven and the earth, and the man accepted it; in the Qur'anic claim that nothing is closer to the man than God, that He is closer to the man than his jugular vein (Qur’an, 50:16); in images of closeness such as the allusion to seeing God on the Doomsday (Qur’an, 22:75) and statements of God's Prophet which speak about seeing God; in hadiths which underscore that God is everywhere in this world, wherever the man turns.

Sufis find the first practitioners of Sufi worldview among contemporaries (as-sahabas) of prophet Muhammed, a.s., considering them founders of Sufism, above all due to their ascetic life; they include Ebu Derda, Ebu Zerr el-Gifari, Huzejfa ibn Jeman. Still, many sources indicate that during the life of Muhammed, a.s., and immediately after his death, the concept of “taqwā” or piety, i.e. a desire to align the life with principles of Islam and following the modest life of God's Prophet was the guiding light of these persons, as well as of Muslims in the first century of Islam. Beyond any doubt, in the first Hijri century there was no separate group which was labeled as Sufis, although some researchers attempted to prove that persons who lived an ascetic life and were focused on piety, or who emphasized mentioning God (zikr) and strove to understand hidden or inner meanings of Qur'anic ayats were actually pioneers of Sufi worldview.

Thus, the first to develop was piety which was characterized by ascetism as a contrast to lavish life of authorities, in the late 1st and early 2nd century of Hijra, i.e. 8th/9th century CE. In the beginning, Sufism emerged as individual effort of devout Muslims who expressed a prominent independence of spirit, while later on strict discipline was introduced, actually the spiritual dictatorship of shaykh. “Nobody doubts that Sufism is essentially Islamic, despite more or less arbitrary affiliations which have been attributed to it by Western Oriental studies (...) profound meditation and ardent fulfillment of duties of the Islamic religion, always and everywhere, served as food to this spiritual commitment. Critics strained to find some possible influences of Neoplatonism, Vedanta, Gnosis or Christianity on Tasawwuf. Naturally, it is not forbidden to compare structures and views; whatever the name of the religion he is associated with, the praying person always prays to the same God and addresses to Him his miserable human words. It would be strange for pilgrims accidentally did not use the same paths. However, it is not the case here” (Meyerovitch, Antologija, 11).

The fact that Sufi teaching developed gradually and that it was inspired by the sources of Islam is illustrated by the view of one of great authorities of Sufi teaching from its earliest period. Abul-al-Qasim-al-Qushayri points out that at the time of Prophet Muhammed, a.s., outstanding and selected people among Muslims were called as-sahabas, “and later on tabi'uns and still later zahidis and abidis. Thereafter, excellencies in religion became known under the name Sufi, and their course under the name Tasawwuf; this term emerged before 200 Hijri year ˮ (Bayat, Mabānī-ye, 15), i.e. before 815 A.D.

Development of Tasawwuf theoretical principles and methodology of practical living through various spiritual exercises of self-control, acquiring spiritual abilities, contemplation and observation, and making efforts on this road lasted several centuries. Many players participated in this long process, particularly dozens of theoreticians and leaders of Sufism in different Muslim environments. It was through this process that Sufism developed its methodology of „inner road“, a distinctive practice of cognition, interpretation and living of these principles. The first generations of Sufis emphasized contemplation (fikr), self-questioning (muhāsaba), piety, i.e. the total submission to principles of religion and ascetic life. Hasan Basri and Ibrahim ibn Adham  practiced complete asceticism, life in poverty and denied the value of material wealth, preferring the wealth of spirit and firm faith applied in every aspect of human life in this world. Rabia al-Addawiyya expressed a significant affinity to poetry, and in verses in Arabic she particularly developed the idea of love without interests. The conceptual-theoretical and practical Sufi road, with many side connections and disconnections where we encounter many practitioners and participants, contributors and innovators, initiated by the described and many undescribed names from the initial era, seems truly impressive and unfathomable, leaving behind a rich spiritual heritage which is still multiplying, built-upon and existing.

References:

• Bāyāt, Mohammad Hosein, Mabānī-ye ‘erfān wa tasawwof, Dānešgāh-e ‘Allāme Tabātabā’ī, Tehrān, 1374. (1995).

• Gouharīn, Seyyed Sādeq, Šarh-e ’estelāhāt-e tasawwof, Entešārāt-e Zawwār, vol. 1-4, Tehrān, 1376 (1997).

• Hafizović, Rešid, Temeljni tokovi sufizma (1999), Bemust, Sarajevo.

• Izutzu, Toshihico (1995), Sufizam i taoizam, Logos, Sarajevo.

• Meyerovitch, Eva de Vitray (1988), Antologija sufijskih tekstova, Naprijed, Zagreb.

• Rahman, Fazlur (1983), Duh islama, Jugoslavija/Prosveta, Beograd.

• Sharif, M. M. (1988), Historija islamske filozofije, I, II, August Cesarec, Zagreb.