GREAT BOSNIANS – GRAND VIZIERS
Author: Aladin Husić, PhD, Oriental Studies Institute in Sarajevo • Illustration: Mehmed-pashaa Sokolović (1505-1579) • Source: Wikimedia Commons
The wheel of history often drives certain personalities, writes its significant sections, changes and directs historical courses, and marks epochs which are recognized by them. For this reason some people are inclined to say that the history of empires is most easily understood through biographies of historical figures. Every story about the Ottoman Empire inevitably brings forth several names which are essential parts of its history. They are the founder Gazi Osman, Sultan Mehmed – better known as Fatih (the Conqueror) and Suleyman – better known as the Lawgiver (Kanuni). They are symbols and personification of the empire and its power. This power was achieved by building institutions, respecting the system of values which included participation of other nations and individuals of non-Turkish origin, who promoted what made the structure of the state firmer and more stronger, thus contributing to the power of the Empire. By carefully selecting young people apt for certain offices across the Ottoman Empire, particularly in its European part, including Bosnia and further educating them the state built institutions which were decisive for the prosperity of the Empire during its success in the classical era of the Ottoman Empire. In this period, same as later at various levels and in various positions, a significant contributions were made by Bosnians, whose roads and ascents to the “imperial peaks” were similar. Some of the first significant personalities at the highest state positions, in a relatively short time, were held by: Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, Atik Ali Pasha, Rustem Pasha and Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. The prominent names of sultans in the area of historical and imperial symbolism correspond, in the administrative field, to their first subordinates, grand viziers, who were the most significant figures of state operation in terms of hierarchy. They marked about one century of the Empire and, in its rise, represented its pillars.
HERSEKZADE AHMED PASHA (STJEPAN) (1456–1524)
A descendant of Bosnian feudal family Kosača, son of Herceg Stjepan and mother Barbara (Stjepan's second wife, a Bavarian and Witelsbah duchess) was born in Herceg-Novi, according to the latest results of historical studies, in 1456. As an aristocrat, he was educated in Dubrovnik. He came to the sultan's court between December of 1473 and the summer of 1474, at the 17.5 years of age, quite voluntarily rather than as a “prisoner” or “pawn” of his father Herceg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača or brother Vlatko. Indeed, in December 1473 he was last time mentioned under his birth name Stjepan, while in September 1474 he was referred to by his new name, Ahmed. Although it has been accepted that he died on 21 July 1517 near (H)Alep, Syria, there is some evidence that it happened in 1524. Actually, on 6 August 1524, upon a request of the Imperial Council in Dubrovnik, investigation was undertaken about the property of Ahmed Pasha “who was killed in Cairo”, where he most likely was a regent after his last vizier position in 1516. Six or seven decades of his life (61 or 68 years), depending on what we accept as the year of birth (1456 or 1459) or death (1517 or 1524) constituted an extremely rich biography, abiding with rises and falls, where the life wealth ranged from a commander to a regent, grand vizier, statesman, diplomat to a poet. His arrival in Istanbul was motivated by the protection of his property and hereditary rights from growing appetite of his increasingly aggressive (half)brother Vlatko. He soon won favor of Sultan Mehmed II who, on 21 May 1477, personally intervened with Dubrovnik authorities to give him access to the resources which his father left him in his will and which were blocked by Dubrovnik authorities, who were guided by closer relations with Stjepan/Ahmed's (half)brother Vlatko, his guardian during his minority. Sultan's kindness to Ahmed was confirmed as early as in the following year, when he assigned him the role of a state standard-bearer (mir-i alem) in the campaign to Skandar, when Ahmed was only 22. This role was probably part of the strategy of mutual benefit. One of important moments in his biography is the year 1484, when he became the son-in-law of Sultan Bayezid II, which was an additional tailwind for young and promising Ahmed-pasha. Successes which started even before the appointment of the new sultan (1481) only accelerated advancement in the career. It was then that successes and occasional failures of Ahmed-pasha began: he was a sanjak-bey (of Hamidija, Hudavendigar, Bursa and Gallipoli), and beylerbey of Anadol (1486, 1490, 1492). On two occasions, as the beylerbey of the Anadol part of the empire he was defeated and captured in wars with Mamluk sultans and on both spent a year in captivity in Cairo (1486–87, 1490–91). After the first captivity he was promoted to the position of potkupolni vizier (kubbe vezir), i.e. the second vizier in the hierarchy. It was followed by the position of admiral (kapudan-i derya) at the time when his compatriot Atik Ali Pasha was the grand vizier. After appointment to the grand vizier in 1497, he held the position at least five times (1497–1498, 1502–1506, 1511, 1512–1514. i 1515–1516), and according to some sources even six times (1497, 1502–1503, 1505–1506, 1511, 1512.1514, 1515–1516). The last position listed by some sources was the “bey of Cairo”. The administrative abilities and successes overshadow two Ahmed Pasha's characteristics: charity and poetic. He commissioned and bequeathed a mosque and imaret (public kitchen) in the place which used to be called Diliskelesi, which he named the town of Hersek (the town of Herzegovina), a mosque in Keshan near Edirne, lands to the benefit of his endowments (imaret, han (inn), mosque, fountains and hammams) He commissioned the legacies in 1508 and legally verified them with a vakufnama (deed of endowment) of 1511. Some authors list a madrasa and maktab of Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, though no details are known about them, not even the place they were built in. His tomb is also fairly neglected despite the fact that he was a grand vizier, five or six times. Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha was one of the first Bosnian poets of divan poetry in the second half of the 15th and the early 16th century.
ATIK ALI PASHA OR HADIM ATIK ALI PASHA (1459–1511)
The second great and very successful figure from our region was both a contemporary and a “follower” of Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha in many respects. He was born in the village of Drozgometva (Buturovići) in the nahiye of Saraj, now the Municipality of Hadžići near Sarajevo. At about fifteen years of age, he was recruited into the janissary youth, and after completing the necessary stages of education in Enderun – Court school for cadets, he built a very successful career from the aga of Imperial Court to the grand vizier. On this road, he served as a sanjak-bey, beylerbey of Karaman (1482), beylerbey of Rumelia, and finally as the grand vizier in 1501–1503 and again in 1506–1511. There are only few people who were so lucky as to remain at the position of grand vizier for such a long time. For a while, two Bosnians alternated at the position of grand vizier. Their careers had much in common. Together with his compatriot Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha he ruled the empire for almost two decades (1497–1516).
It is highly likely that the emissary of the Imperial Court “kapidži Aliˮ was Ali Pasha, who was then younger than thirty (27 years of age). When he turned thirty he was appointed commander of the Imperial Court (kapu-aga), who supervised all the affairs within the Court as the Chief of Protocol, and remained there until the end of the rule of sultan Mehmed II (1451–1481). He was then given the position of beylerbey of Karaman by sultan Bayezid II, his close acquaintance even before his arrival to the sultan throne. During his service at the Court he formed ties with his compatriots Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, Sinan Pasha Borovinić, since they shared the origin and the language. Besides his connections at the Court, Ali Pasha and his service had a significant influence on the position and advancement of his relatives. Ali Pasha's brother Mustafa became a bey and his cousin Jusuf Bosna and Sulejman also had a very valuable estate. Ali Pasha's position certainly had a lot to do with the fact that his relatives Radin and Milovac were granted lands of great values, although they remained in their religion.
Ali Pasha's contribution to the Empire can be traced both in interior and in foreign affairs. In the interior affairs, he played a significant role in conflicts between Bayezid II and prince Cem, and in quelling the insurrection of kizilbashas in Anadolia, where he was killed. He was a successful organizer and manager of the supreme administration of the Empire. In his managerial work, he relied upon officers of Bosnian origin, with whom he shared the language and mentality. In the area of foreign policy, he was credited for the outcome in favor of the Empire against the coalition of Western countries and the truce with Venice in 1503. Under his leadership, great successes were achieved in the areas of Cilicia and Peloponnese. As a grand vizier, he proved to be successful and skillful diplomat in negotiation with Venice, Holy Roman Empire and Dubrovnik.
Unlike his predecessor Hersegzade Ahmed Pasha, who became prominent in the field of literature, Ali Pasha won more fame in the field of charity, by commissioning monumental sacral and other economic and educational endowments. The best-known among them are a mosque in Istanbul in the Cemberlitas neighborhood (1497), a madrasa, an imaret, a maktab and a library. He also commissioned a mosque in Karagumruk in Zingirkoy, completed in 1512, an imaret in Bursa and several maktabs for children in Morea. For his endowments, he bequeathed several houses, stores, inns, hammams and plots. Revenues from the waqfs amounted to almost half a million of akchas, which was a significant amount of money in the mid-16th century. He spent about 270,000 akchas for poor sick population. Briefly, one can say that he was a very successful statesman and a benefactor who, besides his compatriot Hersegzade Ahmed Pasha, largely marked the late 15th and the early 16th century.
RUSTEM-PASHA OPUKOVIĆ (1500–1561)
He was born in the area of present Sarajevo, in the village of Butmir, in about 1500. Like other personalities, Rustem Pasha has been “claimed by regional historiography” according to which he has been proclaimed a “Croat” who originated from the area of Skradin, although Ottomans reached this area only a few decades after Rustem Pasha's birth; for others, he is a “Serb”. Bernardo Navađero, Rustem Pasha's contemporary, claimed that he originated “from a village near Sarajevo”. It is confirmed by a note of Sarajevo sicil (court register) (1557) which mentioned “Nefisa, the daughter of Mustafa, a sister of grand vizier Rustem Pasha”. Sources refer to his father's name in different varieties: Abdurahman, Abdurahim, Abdulhamid, Abdulmumin and finally Mustafa, a long time after the adoption of Islam. His Sarajevo origin is also confirmed by a record of Sarajevo court from 1770, where Abdulkerim Čolaković testified before court that „his ancestor, deceased Rustem Pasha, commissioned a hammam, a bezistan (domed market) and stores in Sarajevo ˮ.
Like many of his predecessors, Rustem Pasha experienced different stages of advancement in his glorious career. After education which was mandatory for cadets, as far as it is known, he held the following positions: has-oda, rikabdar-aga, silahdar-aga and grand mirahum at only 26 years of age. After successful court positions, he continued career in administrative service as: sanjak-bey of Tekka (now the region of Antalia and Alanya). It is not completely certain that he was also a beylerbey of Dijabekir, but he was certainly the beylerbey of Dulkadir (1536) and Karaman. He then became the beylerbey of Anadolia (1538). From this position he was promoted to the rank of vizier in the late 1539, then to the second vizier (1541) and was finally appointed the grand vizier (1544). From 1544 to 156, with a short break (1553–1555) due to suspicions that he was involved in the murder of prince Mustafa, he held the position of grand vizier for about 14.5 years, in the first term for nine and in the second for six years. He died on 12.07.1561.
In the Ottoman Empire, he was thought of differently: he was considered a positive figure by his admirers, but also a negative one by opponents. Foreigners experienced him in a similar way: French and Germans as an extremely negative figure, but those who knew him better, such as Venetians, described him as an intelligent, far-sighted, willing to compromise with good and sensible arguments, reasonable, accommodating and mindful. Whatever the case, the time of his administration was the time of a stabilization of state finance. The measures he took ensured significant revenues for state treasury. Following the example of his compatriot Hersegzade Ahmed Pasha, he proved to be successful in literature as well, as the author of History of Ottoman Dynasty (Tarih-i Ali Osman). Two important elements intertwined and enhanced each other in his glorious and successful career: incredible ability and the role of the son-in-law of sultan Suleyman the Lawgiver (1539), particularly the fact that he was favored and spurred by his mother-in-law Hurem (Roxelana). As the princess's husband, he got the nickname “Damadˮ, which means son-in-law, which was a constituent part of his name.
Besides by successful career, he is well-known by a large number of endowments he left behind. He left endowments in: Bosnia, Croatia, Hungary, Istanbul, Anadolia, Egypt, Kudus (Jerusalem) and Medina. In his home area – Sarajevo – he commissioned Brusa-bezistan, a bridge across the Željeznica river at the spot known as the Roman Bridge, and an inn by the bridge, a hammam and several stores. Although historiography has obviously not recorded all his endowments, it is said that he commissioned 12 mosques and masjids, seven maktabs, 32 hammams, 22 fountains, 273 rooms, 54 warehouses, 563 stored, 28 inns and caravanserais, five madrasas and at least two libraries. This obviously distinguished him from many other people who held the same position.
SOKOLLU MEHMED PASHA (1505–1579)
Like in other cases of successful Bosnians whose biographies are flooded with historiographic interpretations with mythological tinges, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was not spared this fate. The place of his birth is indubitable, the village of Sokolovići near Rudo, in the kadiluk (judicial area) of Višegrad, as well as the fact that his father, upon adopting Islam, took the Džemaludin, as is recorded in his vakufnama (deed of endowment). Everything else are interpretations which turned myths into historical reality
Upon arriving in Edirne at the age of eighteen, he underwent cadet training, which was usual for boys recruited for court service. He was in the service of defterdar (treasurer) Iskender Pasha and after his murder he was transferred to the service of “small chambers”, then “inner treasury” and services very close to the sultan: rikabdar, čohadar, silahdar češnegirbaša and finally kapidžibaša (Imperial Chamberlain). From this position, courtiers typically began administrative services in some of the provinces at the level of sanjak. However, at the age of forty, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was promoted to the Admiral of the Navy (padupadan-i derya), after the famous Hayreddin Barbarossa (1546). It was followed by the positions of beylerbey of Rumelia (1551), a member of the inner circle of central government, the fourth vizier (1554), third vizier (1555), second vizier (1562) and finally the grand vizier (1565), a position at which he stayed until his death on 12.10.1579, when he was assassinated. He showed his statecraft and strategic foresight by planning the construction of Suez Canal and connecting the Don and the Volga with a canal. He did not agree with the expedition to Cyprus, where the Empire experienced a debacle in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), when Ottoman navy was completely destroyed. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha managed to completely renew the navy (1573), after which Venice recognized sultan's rule over Cyprus. It was only one in a series of his successes for the Empire. He was characterized by wisdom and foresight both in the interior and foreign affairs. One of his wise decisions was concealing the death of Suleyman the Lawgiver and transport of his dead body from Siget to Belgrade, aimed at preserving soldiers' unity and moral. The news of the death before the arrival and enthronement of Selim II could have had unpleasant consequences in the army. As a grand vizier he served to three sultans (Suleyman I 1520–1566, Selim II 1566–1574 and Murat III 1574–1595). Foreign diplomats admired him extremely and pointed out his qualities (intelligent, experienced, reasonable and wise in decision-making, willing to listen, good at diplomatic vocabulary, mild in conversation, fond of science). He invested significant part of his wealth for charity purposes. He commissioned endowments in Azapkaya, Kadirga, Ejub (Istanbul), Bujukćekmeđe (Istanbul), Luleburgaz, Hataj, Havsa, Antakia, Erdelj Bečkerek, Edirne, Mekka Medina, Trebinje (Arslanagić Bridge), Višegrad, Tekirdag. He commissioned seven mosques (Azapkapi, Kadirga, Ejub – Istanbul, Bujukćekmeđe – Istanbul, Luleburgas, Hataj, Havsa, Kirklareli). In all these places except in Azapkaya he commissioned whole complexes of endowments which included five madrasas a (Kadirga, Ejup, Luleburgaz, Hataj, Havsa), and other contents, fountains, zawiyahs, darul-kuras, maktabs, markets, caravanserais, bathrooms, public kitchens, bridges and taverns.